These data suggest that CD3−CD16+CD8α+ NK cells dominate in the this website peripheral blood of chimpanzees, and that while there are indeed CD8α− NK cells, most of the CD3–CD16+CD8α+ cells in the study by Rutjens et al. 4 were in fact mDCs. A similar phenomenon may complicate interpretation of CD3−CD16+CD56− cells classified as NK cells in human studies 5, 9. In Rutjens et al. 4, the authors found that, unlike

CD8α+ NK cells, most putative CD8α− NK cells were nonresponsive to the classical NK stimulus, K562 cells, thereby leading the authors to the conclusion that CD8α− NK cells were in fact anergic. However, based on the evidence presented in Fig. 1 of this manuscript, most of the CD8α− cells are likely to be mDCs, explaining their perceived anergy. Therefore, we sought to functionally

confirm our phenotypic definitions by addressing responsiveness of each of the three CD16+ cell populations (Fig. 1) to the mDC stimulus, poly I:C; an NK-cell stimulus, MHC-devoid 721.221 cells; and a universal mitogen, PMA/ionomycin. We first evaluated the production of IFN-γ, an antiviral cytokine commonly produced by activated NK cells (Fig. 2A). In response to PMA/ionomycin and 721.221 cells, populations I and II, but not population III, produced high levels of IFN-γ. We next evaluated production of TNF-α, which can be produced by both NK

cells and DCs 2, 10, 11 (Fig. 2B). Interestingly, populations I and II produced TNF-α in response to 721.221 cells and PMA/ionomycin, but not in response to poly Y 27632 I:C. Population III also produced TNF-α, but only in response to PMA/ionomycin and poly I:C, suggesting that while all three populations were competent producers of TNF-α, secretion was stimulus-specific. Finally, we evaluated production of IL-12, produced by activated mDCs 10, 12, and found that only population III produced detectable intracellular cytokine levels, and only in Baf-A1 manufacturer response to poly I:C or PMA/ionomycin (Fig. 2C). These data indicate that the putative mDCs (III) and NK-cell populations (I and II) had very distinct functional profiles, which corresponded to DC and NK-cell repertoires, respectively, both in regard to stimulus specificity and cytokine production. Thus, based on the phenotypic and functional analyses presented here, it is clear that the CD3−CD16+CD8α− cell population in chimpanzee peripheral blood contains a small NK-cell subpopulation but is dominated by mDCs. Accurate identification of NK cells in both humans and nonhuman primates has been plagued by erroneous phenotypic and functional definitions, issues compounded by the lack of a single highly specific NK-cell surface marker in primates. The data published by Rutjens et al.