Moreover, the impacts of climate change may first become apparent in major storms or other extreme events. Many years of development (sometimes with unrecognized 20s Proteasome activity maladaptation) may precede rare and catastrophic storms. The connection between extreme events and climate-change impacts points to the importance of physical vulnerability. Fundamental challenges in the management of coastal resources on many small islands include a scarcity of data and a lack of awareness of the natural processes and variability

of coastal systems (Nunn et al. 1999; Lata and Nunn 2011). Realistic (data-backed) projections of future impacts (and associated uncertainties), greater understanding of coastal sediment dynamics, and strategies to enhance the natural function of reef and shore-zone biophysical systems are key prerequisites for robust adaptation. Many economic functions on small islands are dependent on coastal access and resources. Tourist infrastructure is targeted predominantly to coastal sites, where inappropriate siting, design or management can augment vulnerability (Shaw et al. 2005). Critical port facilities are Trichostatin A purchase necessarily located at the coast and much port, road, and other infrastructure is

vulnerable to damage from local or far-travelled tsunami, storm waves, or exceptional tides on anomalously high sea levels (Solomon these and Forbes 1999; Jackson et al. 2005; Fritz et al. 2011; Donner 2012). In atolls, limited freshwater lenses and saltwater intrusion or contamination by rising sea levels or storms constrain development and limit agricultural production (Mimura et al. 2007). Tropical small islands are bolstered by protective biological resources. It is widely recognized that coral reefs are the world’s largest coastal protection structures, but widespread degradation observed in many of the world’s reef systems can been attributed to a combination of climate and human impacts (Carilli et al. 2010; Harris et

al. 2010; Perry et al. 2013). The importance of reef systems for coastal stability, as both protective structures and sediment incubators, as well as the many other ecosystem services they provide, underlines the need to promote reef health (McClanahan et al. 2002). Accelerated SLR is one of the most pressing concerns of island residents, particularly the inhabitants of low-lying atolls. Large proportions of habitation and infrastructure are usually concentrated near the coast, even on high-relief islands, and the effects of future SLR, including impacts on reef systems and shoreline stability, are important. Communities occupying low-elevation coastal terraces on high islands are exposed to tsunami runup, storm waves, marine and river flooding, and erosion, but remain in exposed locations for a variety of cultural or economic reasons.