At times, MRI was performed in combination with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) scans to assess glucose metabolism [17,21,48], [11C]SCH 23 390 for D1 receptor binding and [123I]iodobenzamide

(IBZM) or [11C]raclopride (RAC) for D2 receptor binding [17,19–21], allowing for the evaluation of the extent of grafted cell survival and functionality. For example, Hauser et al. reported that putaminal glucose metabolism and D1 receptor binding did not decrease as usually expected with disease progression, Proteasome structure although this was not observed in the caudate nucleus. The authors suggested that this was likely due to the small amount of tissue implanted [17]. However, they also reported a decrease in D2 receptor binding in the putamen and caudate nucleus, presumably due to the selective survival of transplanted neurones or to differences in the time-course or capacity for expression of these receptors [17]. Gaura et al. reported that at 30 months after transplantation,

brain glucose metabolism was either increased or stable in all parts of the striatum when compared with images obtained immediately after surgery. Small regions corresponding to the grafts, as identified by MRI, showed a higher metabolic activity compared with the host striatum. Cortical and striatal hypometabolism was ameliorated in three patients GSK458 chemical structure 2 years after transplantation, which correlated with functional improvement [49]. However, at the 6-year post-transplantation follow-up, glucose metabolism had decreased again [50]. Two patients in whom no increase in metabolic activity had been detected at 2 years [48] continued to deteriorate clinically and, accordingly, MRI did not indicate improvements at 6 years after surgery [50]. Reuter et al. reported Astemizole increased D2 receptor binding at 6 months in one transplanted patient, which slightly

declined afterwards but stayed at levels higher than baseline, whereas another patient did not exhibit any improvement on imaging [20]. Imaging techniques have also been of crucial importance in identifying potential complications and irregularities, although graft complication or unusual grafting patterns remain anecdotal. One single case, which had taken part in a phase II trial conducted by the Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), was diagnosed with encephalitis and displayed striatal glucose hypometabolism, which were interpreted by the authors as signs of graft rejection. These were identified at 14 months after grafting when the patient had become ill after being taken off a 9-month regime of immunosuppressive drugs [51].